Azerbaijan History

Azerbaijan is a country with ancient history. A serious and in-depth study of Stone Age on the Azerbaijan terrain started in the 50s, and first Paleolithic memorials and the Azykh cave were discovered at that time. Based of those discoveries and recent exploration of a number of Stone Age sites, Azerbaijan history can be dated back to some 1.5 million years ago, the Azykh cave being the earliest human settlement ever fouRemnants of pre-ashel culture were found in the lowest layers of the Azykh cave. This culture is one of the oldest and in many features similar to the Olduway culture in South Africa and Walloon in the southeast of France.
A fragment of lower jaw of a woman who lived about 350 to 400 thousand years ago was unearthed from the 5th layer of the Azykh cave. The woman was very close to people of ashel culture, whose remnants were discovered in the Arago cave in France The next culture (moostiye) that formed around 100 thousand years ago and lasted for about 70 thousand years, is characterized by activation of communal relationships and extension of communications over a larger territory.
Late Paleolithic period is the time when Homo Sapiens appeared. In Azerbaijan, this period is represented in Taglar, Damjily, Yataghery and some other sites. It lasted for about 20 thousand years and terminated in the 13th millenium BC.
Traces of the Mesolithic period, a transition from the Paleolithic to Neolithic period can be seen in the Damdjily cave (Gazakh area) and especially in some sites of Gobustan. Carved drawings in Gobustan are a real monument of arts of Mesolithic and next periods. Scenes of hunt, fishing, labor, dance can be seen on the rock face.
The Neolithic period (6th - 4th milleniums BC) was the transition from the Stone Age to Bronze Age. Many Neolithic settlements have been discovered in Azerbaijan, and the artifacts show that during this period people built homes, made copper weapons and were familiar with irrigated agriculture. Their culture and religion enriched. Earliest written evidence of tribes that inhabited South Azerbaijan is dated 23rd century BC. The manuscripts narrate of Guti, Lullubi, Hurra and other tribes. The Hurra tribal union played an extremely important role in the history of ancient East and formed one of the great Eastern civilizations. The Hurra conceived written language in the 3rd millenium BC.
The first state that appeared on the Azerbaijani terrain was Manna, which most likely started to form around the second half of the 9th century BC. Its lands laid to the South-West of the Caspian Sea. Manna flowered in the 8th-9th centuries BC, and in early 7th century BC became a strong power of the time. Manna weakened by the middle of 7th century BC and was eventually conquered by the Medes in late 7th - early 6th century.
Independent Median realm formed in the second half of 7th century. After the Medes' capture of Niniva, which brought end to the Assyrian empire, the realm soon became a huge empire covering territory from Turkey on the West to Afghanistan on the East. The Median Empire had huge influence over the ancient world, and made a vast contribution into ancient culture, despite it was short-lived and was eventually conquered by the Persian King Cyrus.
Cyrus the Great created the huge Achaemenian Empire that incorporated all kingdoms of the Near and Middle East. The empire was divided into 23 provinces, or satrapies. After Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenian Empire in 330 BC, Alexander appointed Atropates, one of his commanding generals, the satrap of Media. Atropates lent his name to his province. Most historians agree that the word Atropatena, often pronounced as Aterpatakan or Aturpatakan, eventually transformed into the modern word Azerbaijan.
The Mazdak religion appeared in East Media in early 1st millennium BC. In 8th-7th cc BC Zoroastrianism emerged, which was practiced by a large number of people of Media and adjacent countries. Zoroastrians' sacred book Avesta played an important role not only in the Median realm, Achaemenian epoch and Atropatena period, but also over 3 to 4 centuries after the Arab conquest. Zoroastrianism considerably affected the ideology of Mazdakits and Babekits.
Alexander the Great's conquest marked the beginning of the Hellenistic age over all of the Near and Middle East when Greek education, language, literature and art became well known in Atropatena as communications enlivened.
In 36 BC the Roman Empire started a war against the Parthian empire that laid to the East of Atropatena. Parthia, joined by Atropatena in this war, fought the Romans back. A few years later Atropatena became an ally of Rome but this union was short-lived and eventually Atropatena turned back to Parthia whose ally it would remain for the next 2 centuries.
The North of Azerbaijan was at the time the terrain of Alban tribes, populating the South of Dagestan and down to the right shore lands of the river Kura. The Alban state formed around 3rd-4th century BC. Over the next 300 years Albans resisted northern nomadic tribes, then defended their land from Armenian kings, in the 1st century BC they fought Romans. Romans made another campaign to conquer Albania in 80-90 AD, which is witnessed by a writing found on a cliff in Gobustan, some 60 km south of Baku. But the Romans failed, and Albania retained independence.
Middle Ages
In 224 AD, Ardeshir of Sassans rebelled against the Parthian King and established the Sassanian Empire. In the second half of 3rd century AD the historical territory of Azerbaijan from Derbent in the North down to Zandjan in the South, Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the West and Caspian Sea in the East as well as all other South Caucasus areas were incorporated into Sassanian Empire which was one of the largest states in the early Middle Ages. South part of this territory, Atropatena became a province of the Empire whereas Albania in the north managed to stay relatively independent and retained its rulers of the Arshakides Dynasty who had been in power since 1st century AD.
First Christian communities appeared in the Albanian part of Azerbaijan at the beginning of the 1st century AD when apostles and their followers came from Jerusalem and Syria. But adoption of Christianity as a state religion took place during the reign of King Urnaihrah in 313. Christianity was not widely practiced though because some ancient religions - pagan cults, Manikhits and Zoroastrianism were still widespread among people.
In late 4th - early 5th centuries the great influence of the religious Mazdak movement caused Sassanians to introduce a lot of reforms including that of the administrative division. As a result Albania and Atropatena with the neighboring areas became a part of the Northern quarter of the Empire which was called Adurbadaghan. Thus, at the beginning of the Sassanian period the word "Azerbaijan" keeping its ethno-geographical meaning became a politico-administrative concept, uniting all historical lands of modern Azerbaijan.
In 643 Azerbaijan was conquered by growing Arab Caliphate and at the beginning of the 8th century its northern part, Albania with other Caucasus regions (Armenia, Eastern Georgia - Kartly and a part of modern Dagestan) became a part of newly created Arab province called "Armenneya". As for the southern part of Azerbaijan, Adurbadaghan, it was within another Arab province - al-Jazere.
Class struggle rose as feudalism was developing and became a religious and socio-political manifestation. Khurramits' riots under the command of Babek were the most forceful. Babek's rebellion lasted for around 21 years (816-837) and made a severe impact on the Arab Caliphate. Weakening of political influence of the Caliphate caused formation of many independent and partially independent states on the territory of Azerbaijan. Rulers of these states were gradually reduced their tribute to the Caliphate and finally rejected to pay it and announced their independence, agreeing to admit the Caliphate's spiritual authority only. One of such states was Sadjids' country, which was established by a Turk, Mohammad ibn Abu s Sadj. This state first time ever united all Azerbaijani lands within one country.
The Arab conquest spread Islam over the territory of Azerbaijan. At that period many Azerbaijanis would go to such cultural centers of the Arab East as Baghdad, Damask, Kufa or Cairo to get education.
In the 70s of 11th century the whole terrain of Southern Caucasus was conquered by the Great Seljuk Empire that conglomerated from Central Asia to Mediterranean Sea and from Caucasus Mountains to Persian Gulf. It was the time when linguistic, religious, territorial, cultural and economical unity of Azerbaijan was achieved, and the long process of spreading of the turkic language over Azerbaijani territory completed.
Dynastic quarrels, struggle for power in the Seljuk Empire in 1092-1157 caused formation of new kind of states. Tutors of little Seljuk crown princes - Atabeks became rulers of those states. Having increased their power, Atabeks were the real rulers of the countries whereas princes only had nominal authority. The most powerful of these states was the country "Atabeks of Azerbaijan" founded by Shamsaddin Ildeniz.
The 12th century is characterized by a cultural growth and considered a period of Renaissance in Azerbaijan. Palaces of Ildenizid and Shirvan Shakh hosted distinguished people of the time, many of whom became outstanding Muslim artists and scientists. Great progress was achieved in mathematics, medicine, chemistry, philosophy, natural science, logic, law, astronomy, Arabic and Persian literature. Bakhmanyar, Khatib Tabrizi, Shikhabaddin Sukhravardi and many others were among those scientists.Nizami Gyandjevi, Abul-Ula Gyandjevi, Afzaladdin Khagani, Feleki Shirvani, Myudjiraddin Baylagani, Mekhseti Khanum Gyandjevi, and many others are representatives of Azerbaijani school of poetry that was flowering in the 11th - 12th century.
New characteristic styles and trends arose in literature and arts in the 11th-12th centuries. Shirvan, Nakhchivan, and Arran architectural schools that established principal features of Azerbaijani medieval architectural style shaped at that time. Fortress walls of Baku; Gyanja, Shamaha, Beylagan, Tebriz, Maraga, Absheron towers, mosques, medrese and khanages, mausoleums, bridges with their distinct and original style are the most remarkable memorials of the contemporary architecture.
In 1225 the Shakh of Khorezm Djalaladdin occupied Azerbaijan, which put an end to the Atabek State. However, Azerbaijan was soon invaded by Mongols.
The Mongolian expansion in the beginning of the 13th century terminated cultural and economic growth of Azerbaijan. In 1231 Mongols occupied most of Azerbaijani lands and killed Khan Djalaladdin. In 1235 they destroyed Gyanja, Shamkir, Tovuz, and other cities and fortresses of Azerbaijan. The period of Mongolian supremacy began in Azerbaijan, which became the principal obstacle to development of the country. The situation was arrogated by constant wars for Azerbaijan between Khulagulds and Golden Orda. Mongolian assaults through the Derbend passage at north stroke a severe blow on the national economy.
Azerbaijani people constantly rebelled against the Mongolian Yoke. In the first years of it there was a riot in Karabakh led by Gassan Jamal. Several years later widespread manifestations of workers and craftsmen occurred in the towns of Shirvan and Tebriz. Being unable to resist well-armed and numerous enemies, the rebels were defeated; nevertheless, the long resistance eventually put an end to the Mongolian supremacy.
In 1380 Garagoyunlu state emerged in the south part of Azerbaijan. Its founder was Gara Mohammad, whose successor Gara Yusif successfully resisted Tamerlan's invasions. However, internal conflicts in Garagoyunlu significantly weakened its strength and finally resulted in its collapse.
The powerful Agkoyunlu state emerged in its place, which incorporated the whole of South Azerbaijan, Georgia, Iranian Iraq, Khorasan, and the entire territory down to Persian Gulf. The capital of the state was Tebriz. Uzun Gasan, the leader of this state, was one of the eminent politicians and commanders of the time.
In early 16th century, feudal dynasty of Safavids emerged in Azerbaijan, which put an end to the Agkoyunly state. The Safavi state covered the territory from the Amudarya river in Central Asia to the Euphrates river. The capital of the Safavi state remained the Azerbaijani city Tebriz.
The Safavi realm, like Garagoyunlu and Agkoyunlu, was multi-ethnic, but the leading role belonged to the Azerbaijanis. The Azerbaijani language was the official language of the Safavid state.
The Safavi realm was at the height of its glory under the reign of Shakh Abbas I (1571-1629). Shakh Abbas encouraged international relations, sent envoys to Europe and received ambassadors from many countries of the world. Trade was also encouraged, and it was the time that Azerbaijani and Persian literature and arts became well known in Europe. Azerbaijani carpets, among Persian carpets quickly became very popular, and were exported into Europe, India and other countries.
The state religion of Safavids was Shi'ah which had an important role in unifying the Persians and Azerbaijanis against the Sunni Ottoman Empire.
Continuous battles and feudal conflicts weakened the Safavi realm, and it collapsed in the 18th century. Azerbaijani lands split into several independent khanates, and continued attempts of the khans to re-unite Azerbaijan failed. In the same time, the khanates had to resist Iran and Russia that constantly tried to conquer Azerbaijan.
In early 19th century, Russia invaded Azerbaijan and occupied North Azerbaijani khanates. It won the war with Iran that followed, and under the peace agreement signed in a Karabakh village of Gulistan, all of Azerbaijani khanates north of the Araks river except Nakhichevan and Yerevan, namely Gyandja, Karabakh, Sheki, Shamakha, Baku, Kuba, and Derbent khanates, proceeded to Russia. Iranian Shakh, however, launched a second war against Russia, which was also lost, and under the treaty signed in the Turkmenchay village near Tebriz, Russia remained control over the Northern Azerbaijani khanates and held the newly annexed Yerevan and Nakhichevan khanates. The Turkmenchay treaty completed separation of the Azerbaijani lands and people, still existing today.
19th and 20th centuries
In the second half of the 19th century, oil production started around Baku. In 1872 oil productive lands were divided into small areas and given for long-term lease. In a few years, capital investments made by both national and foreign businessmen rose sharply. Haji Zeynalabdin Tagiyev, a well-known philanthropist was the first major Azerabaijani businessman. By the end of the century such major foreign businessmen as Rothschild and the Nobel brothers, to name but a few, had oil concessions in Azerbaij an.
Flood of foreign investment, rapid industrial development and fast enrichment of national business community facilitated profound changes in socio-economical and political life as Baku became a major cultural and industrial centre of the world. At the end of the 19th century, education, medical science, press, science were being developed rapidly.
The number of secondary schools increased and first Russian schools were opened. First public libraries were opened in 1890s. S.A. Shirvani, Hasanbey Zerdebi and other public figures played an important role in promotion of education in Azerbaijan.
The first Azerbaijani newspaper "Akinchi" was released in on 22 June 1875. It was founded by H. Zerdebi who was its publisher, editor, and corrector. In 1880-1890s several newspapers in Russian were being published.
The emergence of Azerbaijani national theatre was the most important phenomenon of the second half of the 19th century. In 1880s Haji Zeynalabdin Tagiyev established Azerbaijani theatre which was the first one in the Muslim world, which stimulated grow th of Azerbaijani artists. Mirza Fatali Akhundov, a distinguished Azerbaijani playwright whose plays were staged in Moscow and Saint Petersburg made an outstanding contribution into Azerbaijani theatre development. The composer Uzeir Hadjibeyov (Hajibekov ) produced the first opera in the Muslim world in early 20th century while Huseyn Javid's works focused on the history of Azerbaijan.
In early 20th century, social unrest spread over the Russian Empire, which resulted in mass riots within 1905-07 aggravated by the lost war with Japan. This led to establishment of a parliament (Duma) in what used to be an absolute monarchy. As the Wor ld War I caused a major slump in the economy, social unrest grew and eventually led to the Revolution in February 1917 which abandoned monarchy; the power was transferred to the so-called "Temporary Government" elected by the Duma. In October 1917, the Go vernment was overthrown and the power was seized by Bolsheviks - the Russian Communists.
After the victory of the February Revolution the Temporary Government formed the "Special Transcaucasian Committee" which was the governing body for Transcaucasus. Azerbaijani parties Musavat, Irshad and others began to work legally. These political mo vements were led by M. Ganjinski, M.E. Rasul-zade, A. Agaoglu, A. M. Topchubashev and others. Musavat soon became the leading political party.
After the October Revolution, the power in Baku was seized by Baku Soviet led by Bolsheviks. Stepan Shaumian was elected the chairman of the Soviet's executive committee. Meanwhile, in February 1918 the Transcaucasian Council was established in Tbilisi, which was meant to be the united legislative body for Transcaucasus. M. Rasul-zadeh, the leader of Musavat, became the head of the Azerbaijani fraction of the Council. S. S haumian opposed the autonomy of Azerbaijan defended by the Musavat party, and organized several massacres in Baku and other towns of Azerbaijan against Azerbaijanis in favour of independence.
M. Rasul-zadeh's attempts to have the Council react to the atrocities organised by S. Shaumian and Dashnaks (members of the Armenian Dashnaktsutun party) failed. On 22 April 1918 independent Transcaucasian Federal Republic was proclaimed; however, this failed to stop the anarchy in Azerbaijan and entire Transcaucasus. In May 1918 Georgia left the Council, which was dissolved on 26 May 1918. The National Congress of Azerbaijan was formed, and on 28 May 1918, on its first assembly the National Congress p roclaimed the independent Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (DRA). Fatali Khan Khoyski became the first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan.
The Government of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan moved from Tbilisi to Gyanja. At this time, the Baku Commune led by S. Shaumian was still in power in Baku. The Baku Commune intended to alienate Baku and its neighbouring areas from the rest of A zerbaijan and include them into Soviet Russia, or even subdue entire Azerbaijan.
In June 1918, S. Shaumian launched a march to Gyanja. In this situation, the Government of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan had to turn to Turkey for military assistance. In late June 1918, joint Azerbaijani and Turkish army defeated S. Shaumian's troops.
On 31 July 1918, the Baku Commune, torn by internal conflicts, collapsed, and so-called Centrocaspian Dictatorship was proclaimed. On 15 September 1918, the troops of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan defeated the Centrocaspian Dictatorship, and on 17 September 1918 the Government of Azerbaijan moved to Baku. All territories of Azerbaijan were now under control of the Government.
After the end of World War One Turkey had to withdraw its troops from Baku. On November 17, British troops under the command of General Thompson entered Baku. On 26 December 1918 General Thomson bowed to the pressure and recognised the Democratic Repub lic of Azerbaijan. On 19 November 1918, the Government of Azerbaijan announced the creation of the Parliament as the National Congress of Azerbaijan was transformed into a parliament. The British troops left Baku in August 1919.
From the very first days, the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan underwent Armenian aggression. Armenian troops invaded Nakhichevan and Zangezur, committing mass murders and causing over 50,000 of refugees in an attempt to unify these lands with Armenia . The army of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan fought back the Armenians and cleared Azerbaijan of Armenian troops.
The Government of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan paid much attention to development of education, science and culture. In 1919, the Baku University was opened. In the same time, 100 students were sent to European and Turkish universities. The ne twork of public libraries as well as primary schools was being expanded. Arts and science, having undergone crisis in 1917-1918, revitalised; new journals and magazines were being published. In early 1920 the Government sent a delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, striving for international recognition of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan. Their efforts were successful, and independent Azerbaijan was recognised by the High Council of the Paris Peace Conference.
Soviet Russia, however, refused to recognise the sovereignty of Azerbaijan. As the Red Army fighting General Denikin's troops was moving closer to the North border of Azerbaijan, Azerbaijani communists appealed for the Soviet Russia to annex Azerbaijan . The leadership of Soviet Russia headed by V. Lenin was determined to annex Azerbaijan with its rich oil resources. On 27 April, the Soviet troops crossed the border river of Samur and invaded Azerbaijan. The Government and Parliament of Azerbaijan resig ned, and on 28 April Soviet troops entered Baku. After several months of numerous riots against the Soviet power, which were cruelly suppressed by the Red Army, the new Russian occupation of Azerbaijan was complete.
After the Soviet annexation, Azerbaijan Soviet Republic was initially proclaimed, which was declared to be independent. In a few years, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia were organized into Transcaucasian Federal Soviet Socialist Republic, which existed until 1936, when the Federation was disbanded and Soviet Socialist Republics of Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia were created in its place. Formally independent, Azerbaijan, like all other Soviet Republics was actually under total control of Russia. Althou gh formally the power belonged to "Soviets" - regional and central assemblies whose members were elected, the real power was concentrated in the hands of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its local divisions.
Violence did not stop after the Soviet annexation of Azerbaijan. Armenian troops were still committing mass murders, trying to clear several regions of Azerbaijan of the ethnic Azerbaijani population, causing further tens of thousands of refugees. Arme nian army occupied the Zangezur region, disputed territories of the Yerevan Khanate, and other lands adjacent to Armenia. After a Communist coup in Armenia and its subsequent unification with Russia, the occupied territories were left in the Armenian Sovi et Socialist Republic. As for Yukhari Garabagh, also known as Nagorno-Karabakh, the territory was given autonomy, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous District was formed with mixed Armenian/Azerbaijani population. It must be mentioned that before the Sovi et annexation of Azerbaijan all of the Yerevan Khanate as well as Zangezur and Nagorno-Karabakh belonged to Azerbaijan. The territory of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan constituted 97.6 sq. km., whereas the territory of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist R epublic was eventually reduced to 86.6 sq. km.
After the events of 1917-1920 Azerbaijan's economy was devastated. Oil production fell drastically, as well as industrial and agricultural output. In the first years of the Communist rule, devastation was further exacerbated due to the severe policies of "War Communism" practiced by Bolsheviks until 1921. Industry and land was nationalized, and businessmen and large part of the middle class fled the country. In early and mid-1920s, however, Lenin's "New Economic Policy" and transfer of land ownership t o peasants facilitated rehabilitation of industry and agriculture, and the economy was growing fast in these years.
The Soviet government of Russia put a lot of effort into education all over the Soviet Union. Most of the population of the Soviet Union was illiterate at the time of the Revolution, and one of the purposes of the government was to eliminate illiteracy . Numerous schools were built, and in early 1930s primary education was declared mandatory. The efforts were successful, and in 1933 over 50% of the population were pronounced literate.
Higher education and science was also subject to intensive development. New faculties were opened at Baku State University, and new universities established in Baku and Gyanja. By 1940 there were 16 higher education establishments (institutes or univer sities), with the number of students in excess of 15 thousand.
The Bolsheviks were inclined to develop culture, regarding culture and arts as a powerful means for propagating their ideology. This led to the dual nature of culture evolution during the Soviet time: on the one hand, such forms of art as theatre, musi c, and even literature flowered in 1920s and 1930s, largely driven by the old generation of artists that shaped before the Revolution. On the other hand, the role of arts was considered propaganda of the Communist ideology, and national culture, tradition s and religion were persecuted. History taught at schools was largely distorted to create a favorable image of the Communist party and its activities and a negative image of the independent Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan. Literature and all other forms of art were heavily censored. Russian values were implanted as national values were being persecuted. Religious traditions were being ruthlessly eradicated: the number of mosques reduced from 3,000 in 1920 to 20 in the end of 30s. The two forcible change s of alphabet in 1920s and 1930s were intended to further isolate Azerbaijanis from their history and cultural heritage. Russian became the only official language of Azerbaijan.
The economic policy of the Soviet government changed dramatically in late 20s and early 30s. The process of collectivization was launched: private farms were forcibly formed into "kolkhozes" (collective farms) and communes. Kulaks, or rich farmers, wer e deprived of their property and often arrested and killed or evicted to other regions of the Soviet Union. Peasants vigorously resisted this policy; several riots broke out in late 1920s, which were cruelly suppressed by troops. The agricultural output d ropped dramatically, and it was not until mid-1930s that it stabilized and started to grow again.
In the same time the policy of "industrialization" was declared, which pursued reforming of the industry of the Soviet Union and increasing its industrial output. Although accompanied by dropped living standards and food shortages, industrialization di d achieve the purpose of reforming the economy. In Azerbaijan, it was mainly oil industry, energy and, to a lesser degree, textile industry that were heavily invested and developed, and significant progress was achieved in these areas. Development of othe r branches of industry was neglected, and Azerbaijan remained raw material supply of the rest of the Soviet Union. Nonetheless, the number of industry workers increased from 47,000 to 207,000; unemployment was eliminated, and oil, energy and textile indus tries were largely upgraded.
In mid-1930s, Stalin, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union launched a campaign aimed to exterminate the very roots of unorthodoxy and disloyalty to the Communist regime. This was accompanied by massive punitive actions: millio ns of innocent people across the Soviet Union were charged with counter-revolution, wrecking and sabotage and sentenced to death or exile. Their relatives and friends were also arrested and killed or evicted to Siberia, Kazakhstan and other remote areas o f the Soviet Union. These "repressions" took a heavy toll on Azerbaijan: around 50,000 Azerbaijanis were killed, and over 100,000 evicted. Many of the famous artists, public figures, middle class persons and even workers and peasants who were deemed unrel iable died in those years. The aim of the repressions was to scare the people so that any thought of a protest seemed inconceivable, and by mass murders and terror the purpose was achieved.
The World War II radically changed the life of Azerbaijan. After Germany invaded USSR on 22 June 1941, the economy of Azerbaijan as well as that of the entire Soviet Union was reformed, the primary purpose being to provide adequate supply for the front . Within a short period of time, manufacture of arms was set up at virtually all of machinery construction factories of Azerbaijan. The production of oil also increased, in spite of the lack of manpower. Over 75 million tons of oil was produced during the years of the war.
Azerbaijanis were conscripted to the Soviet army, and tens of thousands of volunteers were also enlisted. All together, over 600,000 were conscripted during the years of the war. As most of men were in the army, women and teenagers replaced them in ind ustry and agriculture. Azerbaijani soldiers were fighting heroically, and many of them distinguished themselves at the front and across Europe. The most famous of Azerbaijani warriors were General Azi Aslanov; Akhmediya Djabrailov known in French Resistan ce as Armed Michel, a close friend of Charles de Golle; Mehti Gusein-zadeh, who distinguished himself in Yugoslavia to name but a few. In the post-war years industrial and agricultural output of Azerbaijan substantially reduced. The reason for this was the lack of manpower as many of professionals had been killed at the war, and the industry was oriented for military production, which wa s redundant after the war. However, within a few years the output was restored as industry and agriculture were heavily invested. New oil fields were being explored, and in 1948 Azerbaijan pioneered offshore oil production. In and around Baku, oil refinin g, petroleum machinery, energy, chemical and heavy industries as well as telecommunications were being rapidly developed. Mining industry was also developed: in 1950s iron ore deposits in Dashkesan were explored, and ore production started.
Development of industry had a negative impact on the environment as ecological issues were totally neglected all through the Soviet period. In the same time, it was primarily raw materials production that was developed, and Azerbaijan was remaining a r aw materials supply of the country. Raw materials from Azerbaijan were processed in other regions of the USSR.
A new wave of terror was launched by Stalin in early post-war years. Thousands of scientists and artists were victims of this policy and were arrested and killed or exiled. In the same time, approximately 100,000 of Azerbaijanis living in the Zangezur region of Armenia were forcibly moved to Azerbaijan whilst Armenians were being moved into Nagorno-Karabakh and other regions of Azerbaijan where Armenians constituted a large share of population.
After Stalin's death in 1953 and Khruschev's raise to power, liberalization was committed in culture, arts and all other areas of life. Thousands of artists killed in 1930s were rehabilitated and their works were allowed to print and republish. Adminis tration of the economy was also shifted from Moscow to the regions: central ministries were disbanded and local administration structures were created in an attempt to improve the efficiency of management. However, after Khruschev's resignation in 1964 th ese measures were reverted and 90% of the industry enterprises of Azerbaijan became subordinate to the central ministries.
After Heydar Aliyev, a KGB Major General was appointed the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan, significant progress was achieved in development of the country. Heydar Aliyev had a strong influence on the leadership of the Soviet Union ; in 1976, he was appointed a Candidate Member of Politburo of the Communist Party of the USSR. Heydar Aliyev used this influence to promote the development of Azerbaijan's industry and agriculture. In the 1970s and 1980s, over 1 million new jobs were cre ated as oil machinery, heavy and consumer industries were being invested and developed. Over 1970s-1980s, Azerbaijan's industrial output tripled.
The progress achieved in economy facilitated urbanization of the population: in 1990 the share of urban population of Azerbaijan attained 54%. The number of population was also growing and in 1989 reached 7 million, 6 million of which were Azerbaijanis , the largest minorities being Russians and Armenians.
In the same time, onshore oil fields were getting exhausted after over 100 years of exploitation. In spite of the development of offshore oil production, the amount of Azerbaijan's oil output was declining. In 1990, oil production of Azerbaijan amounte d to 12.9 million tons compared to 21.5 million tons in 1965. Oil machinery production, on the other hand, was growing as Azerbaijani factories manufactured 2/3 of oil machinery in the USSR, most of which was used at Siberian and other oil fields.
Azerbaijani nationalist movement revived in 1960s and 1970s; however, it was largely persecuted by the KGB, the USSR's secret service. Nationalists were being traced and arrested; the nationalist movement covered only a small number of people, most of them being students, and its impact on the life of the country was insignificant.
By mid-1980s, the growth of the economy of the entire USSR suspended. Inefficient management was a major obstacle to development of the country. After Mikhail Gorbachev chaired the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, he attempted to reform the economy and liberalize all areas of life. Introduction of the new policy of "glasnost" revitalized the social and cultural life of the nations of the Soviet Union; nationalist movements in its republic revived. Azerbaijani writers and historians were trying to s hed light on the blank pages of history, especially history of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, resistance to the Soviet power and Stalin's purges.
Whilst introduction of the new policy facilitated social and cultural development, attempts to reform the economy failed. From mid-80s, the economy of the USSR was constantly slumping. As the USSR was moving to its eventual disintegration, economic tie s between its republic were loosening, which further exacerbated the economy.
In 1988, the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh declared that the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous District was separating from Azerbaijan and unifying with Armenia. This resulted in a flood of Azerbaijani refugees from Nagorno-Karabakh; Azerbaijani population o f Armenia were also forced to flee the country. The territorial dispute, which eventually led to a war and occupation of over 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan (including Azerbaijani regions adjacent to Nagorno-Karabakh) and caused over 1 million of Azer baijani refugees and internally displaced people, became the most influential political factor in Azerbaijan over the next years.
The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict stirred up the society of Azerbaijan and was the cause of mass meetings and strikes. Through 1988-1990, state of emergency and curfew was systematically declared in Baku and other cities of Azerbaijan. In 1989, Azerbaijan Popular Front was established, which can be considered the first political party other than the Communist party in the new Azerbaijan. The Popular Front was chaired by Abulfaz Aliyev (Elchibey), who had been persecuted in 1970s for his nationalist activit ies. The Popular Front was semi-legal over the first time yet it had a lot of influence on Azerbaijanis. The Popular Front was legalized on 5 October 1989 when it was officially registered.
Through 1989, the Communist party was losing control over the situation as the Popular Front was attaining wide support among the population. It was most likely that the Popular Front would win the elections to the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan to be he ld in March 1990 and dominate the Supreme Soviet.
On 13 January 1990, massive anti-Armenian actions took place in Baku provoked by the murder of two Azerbaijanis by an Armenian. Both police and troops stationed in Baku were ordered to stand by and not intervene, and although by 15 January 1990 the dis order stopped, local authorities were paralyzed. The Popular Front initiated a general strike and meetings with the requirements to stop violence and resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. The leadership of the USSR used these events as an impetus for mov ing armed forces into Baku and regaining the power. On 19 January 1990, heavily armored troops entered Baku. Encountering no resistance, the army was killing unarmed civilians, shooting everyone in the streets. All together, 131 civilian people were kille d and 744 wounded during these events, which eliminated any remaining loyalty to the Communist Party. Mass meetings did not stop, and on 22 January 1990 over 2 million people participated in funerals of the victims. From 1991, 20 January is a public holid ay and a mourning day in Azerbaijan.
Through 1990 and first half of 1991, the Communist leadership of Azerbaijan was trying to achieve a compromise with the opposition. The flag of Azerbaijan was changed to that of the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, the official name of the country wa s changed to Republic of Azerbaijan, and restraints on the nationalist movement were loosened. In May 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan instituted the post of President of Azerbaijan and elected the then First Secretary of the Communist Party of Azer baijan Ayaz Mutalibov to the President. Elections were held to the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan in September 1990; it is believed that the results of the elections were largely falsified, and the opposition took only 30 seats out of 360. In September 1991 Ayaz Mutalibov was elected the President of Azerbaijan by general elections.
After the failed coup organized by Communist hard-liners in Moscow in August 1991 it became obvious that collapse of the USSR was inevitable. In September 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan adopted the "Constitutional Act of Independence of the Rep ublic of Azerbaijan", which was also adopted by a universal referendum in December 1991. In late December 1991 the USSR was proclaimed dissolved and its 15 former republics regained independence.
The collapse of the Soviet Union was accompanied by an immense slump in the economy. In early 1992, the industry of Azerbaijan was operating at 25 to 30% of capacity as traditional economic ties with the former republics of the Soviet Union were cut. T he inflation rate was growing fast. The economic crisis left 60 to 70% of the population below the poverty line. And the situation was made worse by the growing number of internally displaced people.
The economic crisis was accompanied by political instability. Following a severe exacerbation of the situation over Nagorno-Karabakh generating a new wave of internally displaced people, Ayaz Mutallibov was forced to resign, and the Supreme Soviet appo inted Yagub Mamedov acting President. In early May 1992, Ayaz Mutallibov made a failed attempt to return to power. In June 1992, general elections were held, and the leader of the Popular Front Abulfaz Elchibey was elected the President of Azerbaijan.
After regaining independence, Azerbaijan began to build its international relationships as a sovereign state. In 1992, it became a member of the UN, UNESCO, Islamic Conference Organization and other international organizations. Embassies of Azerbaijan were opened in the US, the United Kingdom and other countries as these countries, in turn, opened their embassies in Baku.
In early 1992 opposition parties other than the Popular Front were formed. The National Independence Party, led by former Popular Front member Etibar Mamedov played an important role in the life of Azerbaijan over the next years. The Communist Party of Azerbaijan was disbanded in September 1991. In 1993, it was reestablished but its influence diminished sharply compared to the Soviet Union years and became nearly negligible. From 1992 onward, many more political parties were registered and some of them , including the National Independence Party, gained strong political influence in subsequent years.
In spite the severe crisis, the economic prospects of Azerbaijan were brightened by huge oil reserves in the shelf of the Caspian Sea. From early 1990s, negotiations were conducted with British Petroleum, Statoil, Amoco and other major petroleum compan ies of the world to set up joint oil production. For a long time, however, the effort to arrive at an acceptable agreement with the companies was unsuccessful, and Elchibey's government failed to reach an agreement as the political and economic situation of Azerbaijan was worsening.
In mid-1993, the political situation in Azerbaijan severely aggravated following a defeat in Nagorno-Karabakh. Several military commanders rebelled against the central government, and the threat of a civil war. In this situation, the leadership of the country appealed to Heydar Aliyev, then Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic to step in. On 15 June 1993 Heydar Aliyev was elected the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan. A few days later Abulfaz Elchibey left Ba ku for his home village Keleki among calls for his resignation. Heydar Aliyev was then temporarily given the authority of the President. Following a votum of no confidence to Abulfaz Elchibey adopted by a universal referendum in August 1993, Heydar Aliyev was elected the President of Azerbaijan by general elections in October 1993. In summer 1993, Heydar Aliyev established the New Azerbaijan Party, which became the governing party after he was elected.
As the President, Heydar Aliyev managed to stabilize political and economic situation of Azerbaijan. A cease-fire was achieved over Nagorno-Karabakh in May 1994 and negotiations started aimed at political resolution of the conflict. In September 1994, the first oil contract, known as "Contract of the Century" was signed with major petroleum companies, the amount of the contract being US .5 billion.
In 1995, elections were held to Milli Mejlis (National Assembly) - a 125-seat parliament that replaced the Supreme Soviet. In the same year, the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan was adopted by a universal referendum. The Constitutional Court was established in 1998. Hyperinflation was stopped, and the exchange rate of the local currency manat stabilized: the yearly inflation rate declined from 1600% in 1994 to 3.7% in 1997. In 1996, the growth of Gross Domestic Product was achieved for the first time since 1989. A gr owth of standards of living was achieved, which had dropped drastically since 1980s.
The Contract of the Century was followed by further oil production agreements through 1995-1998. Political stabilization and economic achievements attracted foreign investors: 2.7 billion dollars were invested into Azerbaijan within 1994-1997, 23% of w hich were directed to branches of economy other than oil production.
Heydar Aliyev was re-elected as the President of Azerbaijan in October 1998. Pictures: School.jpg - Baku. Muslim Women's High School, 1916. (Now The Institute of Manuscripts of the Academy of Sciences) Chirag.jpg - Baku. "Chirag-1" oil drilling platform of Azerbaijan International Operating Company (AIOC)